Sam Carey
In the Golden Age of the Ottoman Empire, Süleyman the Magnificent continued to expand the boundaries of Ottoman influence. His father Selim had previously conquered Syria (1516), Palestine (1517) and Egypt (1517). (Shaw 79) Süleyman went on to invade Belgrade (1517) and Rhodes (1522), and installed governors in Tunis, Tripoli, and Algiers. He also wrested control of Mesopotamia and Kurdistan away from the Persians. Much of the success of the Ottoman economy depended on not only the conquests of Süleyman but also those of his predecessors All this territory gave the Ottomans a significant advantage in terms of trade as they essentially stood at the nexus between East and West. They controlled most of the land routes connecting Europe and Asia, as well as having control over the Red Sea and the Black Sea. (Inalcik 128-9) The Ottomans’ dominance in the Black Sea was especially significant, ,and during the reign of Süleyman they were largely able to exclude the Italian powers from these trade routes, which created in turn an impetus for Europeans to seek alternative routes to the East. (129-30)
The Ottoman city of Bursa became a meeting place between east and west. (Inalcik 125) The extremely fine silks of Northern Iran were much sought after, particularly by Italian merchants and Süleyman was able to extract heavy taxes from European traders. (Inalcik 126) Another important market for Persian silks was located in the Syrian city of Aleppo which had been conquered by the Ottomans in 1516, illustrating once again how Ottoman expansionism and economic prowess went hand in hand.
Merchants from the East were also dependent on the Ottomans for access to European goods. Persian merchants, for example, were likely to return from Bursa with “European woolens, Bursa brocades, velvets, and gold and silver coins.” (Inalcik 128) The gold and silver had a higher value in Iran than they did in Bursa. Rhubarb and Chinese porcelain (via central Asia) were also sought after, and available in Bursa. (Inalcik 125)
The Ottomans also maintained a lively trade with their conquered territories. For instance, timber, iron, iron tools, camlets, cotton textiles, carpets, rugs, opium, dried fruits, furs, and wax were exported to Egypt and Syria, while the Ottomans themselves imported Indian spices, indigo, linen, rice, sugar, and Syrian soap. These imports from Egypt and Syria were critical for the Ottoman economy and many of the more valuable provisions were sent directly to the sultan’s palace. 50,000 kg. of Syrian soap was received annually by the palace. (Inalcik 128)
European traders needed access to eastern goods. The goods they valued most were gold, jewels, silk, and perfumes. Spices were in even more demand. It would be several centuries before the invention of refrigeration, and spices assisted in covering up the taste of spoiling meat, as well as improving flavor. Among the most popular imports were pepper, cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg. (Inalcik 124) European traders mainly traveled to cities in North Africa and Southwest Asia for these goods and spices, with the Ottoman cities of Alexandria, Damascus, Istanbul, Damascus and Bagdad serving as the crossroads between Europe and Asia. In 1475 the Ottomans conquered the Black Sea ports of Caffa and Azov. In 1484 they went on to conquer the ports of Kilia and Akkerman, further solidifying their hold on the Black Sea trade. (129 inalick) It was when the Ottomans captured Constantinople, that trade between Europe and Asia almost came to a full stop. (Inalcik 124)From this point on, Europeans had no choice but to go through Ottoman territories if they wanted access to Asian goods. Since the Western European powers did not want to be beholden to an “expansionist, non-Christian” power they became motivated to look for an alternative sea route to Asia. Ottoman control of such a vast array of territory is part of what allowed them to flourish during the early 16th century.
To fully comprehend the Ottoman system of trade, it is important to understand the concept of Capitulations (or Ahidnâme). Capitulations were basically contracts between the Ottomans and European powers in the form of trade concessions. (Shaw 158) The first such contract was between Süleyman and Francis I of France. (Shaw 91) Their agreement did not go over so well with other European powers who disapproved of a Christian power engaging with a non-Christian expansionist power. Nevertheless, this alliance between France and the Ottoman empire lasted more then two centuries, and probably had more to do with combating the influence of the Habsburgs of the Holy Roman Empire than any other factor. While France claimed that their motivation for such an alliance was to ensure the safety and well being of Christians living in Ottoman controlled territories, the truth was that the Ottoman policy made a point of not persecuting non-Muslims. (Shaw 120)
The Ottoman Empire’s complicated tax system necessitated a robust bureaucracy. The taxes to be collected were of two kinds: those authorized by the Koran, and those dictated by the Sultan. (120) Ottoman Sultans asserted that it was their “sovereign right to legislate in secular matters.” (120) Among the taxes in the empire were the tithe (one tenth of agricultural produce), the head tax (collected from non-Muslims according to their ability to pay) the Zekât (alms), the municipal tax (collected from all artisans and merchants), the Sheep Tax, and the Mine Tax (one fifth of the yield of all privately held mines). (Shaw 120-21) Additional taxes authorized by the Imperial Council included a household tax to help pay for “soldiers and functionaries visiting the area…campaign expenses…and emergency aid to neighboring areas that had suffered from natural calamities.” (Shaw 120) One reason for the eventual decline of the Ottoman Empire was that this bureaucracy would later become mired in corruption and inefficiency.
In the Golden Age of the Ottoman Empire, Süleyman the Magnificent continued to expand the boundaries of Ottoman influence. His father Selim had previously conquered Syria (1516), Palestine (1517) and Egypt (1517). (Shaw 79) Süleyman went on to invade Belgrade (1517) and Rhodes (1522), and installed governors in Tunis, Tripoli, and Algiers. He also wrested control of Mesopotamia and Kurdistan away from the Persians. Much of the success of the Ottoman economy depended on not only the conquests of Süleyman but also those of his predecessors All this territory gave the Ottomans a significant advantage in terms of trade as they essentially stood at the nexus between East and West. They controlled most of the land routes connecting Europe and Asia, as well as having control over the Red Sea and the Black Sea. (Inalcik 128-9) The Ottomans’ dominance in the Black Sea was especially significant, ,and during the reign of Süleyman they were largely able to exclude the Italian powers from these trade routes, which created in turn an impetus for Europeans to seek alternative routes to the East. (129-30)
The Ottoman city of Bursa became a meeting place between east and west. (Inalcik 125) The extremely fine silks of Northern Iran were much sought after, particularly by Italian merchants and Süleyman was able to extract heavy taxes from European traders. (Inalcik 126) Another important market for Persian silks was located in the Syrian city of Aleppo which had been conquered by the Ottomans in 1516, illustrating once again how Ottoman expansionism and economic prowess went hand in hand.
Merchants from the East were also dependent on the Ottomans for access to European goods. Persian merchants, for example, were likely to return from Bursa with “European woolens, Bursa brocades, velvets, and gold and silver coins.” (Inalcik 128) The gold and silver had a higher value in Iran than they did in Bursa. Rhubarb and Chinese porcelain (via central Asia) were also sought after, and available in Bursa. (Inalcik 125)
The Ottomans also maintained a lively trade with their conquered territories. For instance, timber, iron, iron tools, camlets, cotton textiles, carpets, rugs, opium, dried fruits, furs, and wax were exported to Egypt and Syria, while the Ottomans themselves imported Indian spices, indigo, linen, rice, sugar, and Syrian soap. These imports from Egypt and Syria were critical for the Ottoman economy and many of the more valuable provisions were sent directly to the sultan’s palace. 50,000 kg. of Syrian soap was received annually by the palace. (Inalcik 128)
European traders needed access to eastern goods. The goods they valued most were gold, jewels, silk, and perfumes. Spices were in even more demand. It would be several centuries before the invention of refrigeration, and spices assisted in covering up the taste of spoiling meat, as well as improving flavor. Among the most popular imports were pepper, cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg. (Inalcik 124) European traders mainly traveled to cities in North Africa and Southwest Asia for these goods and spices, with the Ottoman cities of Alexandria, Damascus, Istanbul, Damascus and Bagdad serving as the crossroads between Europe and Asia. In 1475 the Ottomans conquered the Black Sea ports of Caffa and Azov. In 1484 they went on to conquer the ports of Kilia and Akkerman, further solidifying their hold on the Black Sea trade. (129 inalick) It was when the Ottomans captured Constantinople, that trade between Europe and Asia almost came to a full stop. (Inalcik 124)From this point on, Europeans had no choice but to go through Ottoman territories if they wanted access to Asian goods. Since the Western European powers did not want to be beholden to an “expansionist, non-Christian” power they became motivated to look for an alternative sea route to Asia. Ottoman control of such a vast array of territory is part of what allowed them to flourish during the early 16th century.
To fully comprehend the Ottoman system of trade, it is important to understand the concept of Capitulations (or Ahidnâme). Capitulations were basically contracts between the Ottomans and European powers in the form of trade concessions. (Shaw 158) The first such contract was between Süleyman and Francis I of France. (Shaw 91) Their agreement did not go over so well with other European powers who disapproved of a Christian power engaging with a non-Christian expansionist power. Nevertheless, this alliance between France and the Ottoman empire lasted more then two centuries, and probably had more to do with combating the influence of the Habsburgs of the Holy Roman Empire than any other factor. While France claimed that their motivation for such an alliance was to ensure the safety and well being of Christians living in Ottoman controlled territories, the truth was that the Ottoman policy made a point of not persecuting non-Muslims. (Shaw 120)
The Ottoman Empire’s complicated tax system necessitated a robust bureaucracy. The taxes to be collected were of two kinds: those authorized by the Koran, and those dictated by the Sultan. (120) Ottoman Sultans asserted that it was their “sovereign right to legislate in secular matters.” (120) Among the taxes in the empire were the tithe (one tenth of agricultural produce), the head tax (collected from non-Muslims according to their ability to pay) the Zekât (alms), the municipal tax (collected from all artisans and merchants), the Sheep Tax, and the Mine Tax (one fifth of the yield of all privately held mines). (Shaw 120-21) Additional taxes authorized by the Imperial Council included a household tax to help pay for “soldiers and functionaries visiting the area…campaign expenses…and emergency aid to neighboring areas that had suffered from natural calamities.” (Shaw 120) One reason for the eventual decline of the Ottoman Empire was that this bureaucracy would later become mired in corruption and inefficiency.